Aspect and time expressions
Chinese languages generally lack tense. Unlike Indo-European languages, which change the form of the verb depending on the tense (e.g. German present tense Ich esse “I eat”, preterite Ich aß “I ate”), Chinese languages indicate time in other ways: using time adverbs, through context, and using aspect markers.
For how to tell time on the clock and in the calendar, see “Numbers and counting”.
Contents
Aspect
In English, what is usually taught in school as “tenses” are actually combinations of tense and aspect. Tense relates a point in time relative to the speaker, whereas aspect describes the duration of an action (denoted by a verb) in relation to that point in time. For example, “I bake a cake” is in the simple present tense, whereas “I have baked a cake” is still in the present tense, but adds the perfect aspect to the verb “to bake”. The action “baked” occurred before the present time when the sentence is spoken. In comparison, “I had baked a cake” is also in the perfect aspect, but in the past tense. To get a sense of the difference, compare the following statements:
“Do you want some cake? I have baked the cake.”
(The conversation is taking place in the present. The cake was baked in the past, but it is still relevant to the present situation.)
“He wanted some cake. Fortunately, I had baked a cake.”
(The speaker is relating events from the past. The cake was already baked at that point in time, and was relevant then, but is not relevant to the present.)
In Chinese, the verbs themselves do not change in form, like “bake/baked” in the example above. To indicate time and aspect, additional words are added before or after the verb. These can be adverbs, verb complements (see “Verbal complements”), auxiliary verbs, and a special class of words called aspect markers.
Comparison of aspect markers
In most Chinese languages, aspect markers come after the verb as a suffix, as in the Mandarin and Cantonese examples below. What distinguishes aspect markers from other parts of speech is that other words (e.g. negatives, potential markers) cannot be inserted between the verb and its aspect marker. In contrast, some of the most frequently used markers in Teochew (and other Southern Min languages) come before the verb as a prefix.
Table adapted from Matthews & Yip (2011, pg. 226).
| Aspect | Teochew | Mandarin | Cantonese |
|---|---|---|---|
| Perfective | V + liao2 了 | V + le 了 | V + jó 咗 |
| V + lou7 𡀔 | |||
| Experiential | bag4 識 + V (+ guê3 過) | V + guò 過 | V + gwo 過 |
| Progressive | lo1 囉 + V | zài 在 + V | V + gán 緊 |
| do6 在 + V | |||
| bang3(2)go3 放塊 + V | |||
| Continuous | V + do6(7)go3 在塊 | V + zhe 著 | V + jyuh 住 |
| V + bang3(2)go3 放塊 | |||
| Delimitative | V + zêg8(4)ê7 一下 | V + yī 一 + V | V + háh 吓 |
| V + yīxià 一下 | |||
| V + V [reduplication] | |||
| Inchoative | V + ki2(6)lai7 起來 | V + qǐlái 起來 | V + héi-séuhng-làih 起上嚟 |
| Continuative | V + loh8(4)ke3 落去 | V + xiàqù 下去 | V + lohk-heui 落去 |
| Habitual | ? | - | V + hōi 開 |
Affirmative and habitual aspects
The affirmative aspect is used to affirm that an event or action has already been completed.
The habitual aspect is used to mean that a particular action or event is performed habitually.
These two aspects are indicated with u6 有, which is explained under “Auxiliary verbs”.
Perfective aspect
Actions that have already been completed.
The main aspect marker for the perfective is liao2 了, which is cognate with Mandarin liǎo. The pronunciation of liao2 is variable (liêu2, liou2) and there are also contracted forms lao7 and lou7 𡀔. Which form or pronunciation is preferred is regionally variable, but they have the same grammatical function.
a³³si¹¹ u¹¹ tʰam³³bu³³ a / tʰam³³bu³³ tiau¹¹tsʰai¹¹tse³³ za⁵³ tsiu¹¹ lai¹¹ tsʰe³³ lou¹¹
A1-si6(7) u6(7) tam1bhu1 a, Tam1bhu1-diao7cai5(7)zê1 za2 ziu6(7)lai5(7) cê1-lou7
若是 有 貪污 a，貪污調查局 早 就來 查 𡀔
If have corruption , corruption-investigation-agency early then-come investigate-PERF
If there was corruption, the Corrupt Practices Investigation Board would have come to investigate long ago.
Change-of-state aspect
Closely related to the perfective aspect. This indicates that there is a new situation that has just happened, but which also affects the present context.
tsiaʔ² puŋ¹¹ lou¹¹
Ziah8(4) bung7 lou7!
食 飯 𡀔！
Eat rice CHS!
It’s time to eat!
This uses the same word as the perfective aspect marker. The same sentence can also be understood to mean “(I) have already eaten!”
Experiential
Events that have been experienced by the subject in the past.
Most Chinese languages use a cognate of guê3 過 after the verb as the experiential aspect marker.
Nǐ yǒu chī-guò kǔ mā?
你 有 吃 過 苦 嗎？
You have eat-EXP bitterness PRT?
Have you ever experienced suffering?
Teochew and other Min languages use the prefix bag4 識 instead.
lɯ⁵² pak⁵ tsiaʔ²kou⁵² bo⁵⁵
Le2 bag4(8) ziah8(4)kou2 bho5?
汝 識 食苦 無？
You EXP eat-bitterness NEG?
bag4 is also a verb meaning “know”, “recognize”.
There is also a hybrid form with both the bag4 prefix and guê3 suffix, and guê3 is sometimes also used by itself, perhaps influenced by Mandarin and standard written Chinese.
ua⁵² pak⁵ tsiaʔ² kue²¹³ kai¹¹ iam⁵⁵ / tsoi¹¹ kue²¹³ lɯ⁵² tsiaʔ² kue²¹³ kai¹¹ puŋ¹¹
Ua2 bag4(8) ziah8(4) guê3 gai5(7) iam5, zoi7 guê3(2) le2 ziah8(4) guê3 gai5(7) bung7.
我 識 食 過 個 鹽， 濟 過 汝 食 過 個 飯。
I EXP eat EXP REL salt, more COMP you eat EXP REL rice.
I’ve eaten more salt than you’ve eaten rice.1
Notice that the word guê3 is also used as a comparative (see “Comparisons, Quantities, Degrees”).
The word bag4 is also a verb meaning “to know”, “recognize”.
i³³ tã⁵² i³³ si¹¹ lɯ⁵² teŋ²⁵pai⁵² kai¹¹ tʰaŋ¹¹hak⁵ / lɯ⁵² u¹¹ pak⁵ i³³ bo⁵⁵
I1 dan3(2) i1 si6(7) le2 dêng2(6)bai2 gai7 dang5(7)hag8, le2 u6(7) bag4(8) i1 bho5?
伊 呾 伊 是 汝 頂擺 個 同學， 汝 有 識 伊 無？
He say he is you past REL classmate, you have know he NEG?
He says he was your classmate; do you recognize him?
Inceptive
Actions that have just begun, in the immediate past.
In Mandarin, this is expressed with the adverb gānggāng 剛剛. In Teochew, there are two adverbs that can be used to mark inceptive aspect: du1du1 堵堵 and ngam1ngam1 啱啱. The latter is a loanword from Cantonese.
i³³ tu³³tu³³ tsʰuk⁵muŋ⁵⁵ / ua⁵² m¹¹tsai³³ i³³ kui³⁵tiam⁵² tɯŋ⁵²lai¹¹
I1 du1du1 cug4(8)mung5, ua2 m7zai1 i1 gui2(6)diam2 deng2lai7.
伊 堵堵 出門， 我 唔知 伊 幾點 轉來。
He just exit-door, I NEG-know he what-time return.
He just left; I don’t know when he’ll be back.
Grammatically, these are adverbs rather than proper aspect markers. For example, they can be combined with other aspect markers, like the progressive marker lo6 囉:
i³³ tu³³tu³³ lo²⁵ tsiaʔ²puŋ¹¹ / lɯ⁵² ai⁵² kie⁵² i³³ kɯ⁵² ti¹¹ko¹¹
I1 du1du1 lo6 ziah8(4)bung7, le2 ai3(2) giê3(2) i1 ke3(2) di7go7?
伊 堵堵 囉 食飯， 汝 愛 叫 伊 去 哋塊？
He just PRG-eat, you want call him go where?
He just sat down to have his meal; where are you calling him away to?
Like “just” in English, tu1tu1 and ngam1ngam1 can also be adverbs meaning “just right”, e.g. combined with ho2 好 “good”:
koi³³nɯŋ¹¹ko³³ hoŋ³³ pũã⁵³ tiam⁵³tseŋ³³ ŋam³³ŋam³³ho⁵³
Goi1neng6(7)-go1 hong1 buan3(2) diam2(6)zêng1 ngam1ngam1ho2.
雞卵糕 烘 半 點鐘 啱啱好。
Cake bake half hour just-right.
Baking the cake for half an hour is just right.
In Southeast Asia, the Malay loanword bha7lu1 (from baru/baharu, “new”) is also used to indicate inceptive aspect:
i³³ ba¹¹lu³³ tsʰuk⁵muŋ⁵⁵ / ua⁵² m¹¹tsai³³ i³³ kui²⁵tiam⁵² tɯŋ⁵³lai¹¹
I1 bha7lu1 cug4(8)mung5, ua2 m7zai1 i1 gui2(6)diam2 deng2lai7.
伊 baru 出門， 我 唔知 伊 幾點 轉來。
He just exit-door, I NEG-know he what-time return.
He just left; I don’t know when he’ll be back.
Progressive
Actions that are ongoing.
Two of the markers for progressive aspect, lo1 囉 and do6 在, are neutral in meaning, compared to the third marker bang2go3 放塊 which is used to emphasize that the person performing the action is doing so deliberately.
do6 在 is cognate to Mandarin zài and has similar usage:
Mandarin:
Tā zài shuāyá.
他 在 刷牙。
Teochew:
i³³ to¹¹ tsʰiu⁵²kʰi⁵²
I1 do6(7) ciu3(2)ki2.
伊 在 漱齒。
He/she PROG brush-teeth.
He/she is brushing his/her teeth.
***
u¹¹ tsek²tsua¹¹ / pak⁵huaŋ³³ kaʔ⁵ zik⁵tʰau⁵⁵ lo³³ a¹¹tã⁵³ ti¹¹tiaŋ¹¹ kʰiaŋ²¹³
U6(7) zêg8(4)-zua7, Bag4(8)huang1 gah4(8) Rig8(4)tao5 lo1 a7dan3(2) di7diang5(7) kiang3.
有 一帀， 北風 佮 日頭 囉 䛩呾 哋𫢗 強。
Have one-time, north-wind with sun PROG argue who strong.
Once upon a time, the North Wind and the Sun were arguing over which of them was stronger.
In contrast, bang3(2)go3 emphasizes that the action is deliberate.
i³³ bo¹¹ to¹¹ tso⁵² tsak⁵ŋiep⁵ / paŋ⁵³ko²¹³ tʰõĩ⁵³ tiaŋ¹¹si²⁵
I1 bho5(7) do6(7) zo3(2) zag4(8)ngiêp8, bang3(2)go3 toin2 diang6(7)si6.
伊 無 在 做 作業， 放塊 睇 電視。
He/she NEG PROG do homework, PROG watch television.
He/she is not doing his/her homework, but is watching television.
(from Xu 2007, example 74)
Continuous
States or situations that are stable and ongoing, without any comment on how they came about or when they might end.
Also known as the durative aspect, and not to be confused with the continuative aspect (see below). Related to the progressive, but the continuous aspect marker is a suffix, coming after the verb.
i³³ tso²⁵ to¹¹ko²¹³ tʰoi⁵² po⁵²tsua⁵²
I1 zo6-do6(7)go3 toi2 bo3(2)zua2.
伊 坐 在塊 睇 報紙。
He sit-CONT read newspaper.
He sits there reading the newspaper.2
The various varieties of Teochew are particularly rich in markers for the progressive and continuative aspects. These markers originate from words related to location, such as do6 在 “at”, and go3 塊 the general location suffix for demonstrative pronouns like he2(6)go3 許塊 “there” and di7go3 哋塊 “where”.
Delimitative
Actions that are of short duration.
The aspect marker zêg8(4)ê7 一下 is cognate with Mandarin yíxià, and literally means “one time” or “a moment”.
lɯ⁵² lai¹¹ tʰoi⁵² tsek²e¹¹ / hɯ⁵²kai¹¹ si¹¹m¹¹si¹¹ sɯŋ³³ ieŋ⁵²tse³³
Le2 lai5(7) toi2-zêg8(4)ê7: he2(6)gai5(7) si6(7)-m7si6(7) Seng1-Ieng3(2)ze1?!
汝 來 睇 一下： 許個 是唔是 孫燕姿？！
You come look-DEL: that is-NEG-is Sun Yanzi?!
Come have a look: isn’t that Stefanie Sun?!
Tentative
Actions that test or try something.
The marker toi2 睇 literally means “to see”, which is similar in spirit to the English expressions “try it and see” and “we shall see”.
lɯ⁵² tsiaʔ² tʰoi⁵² / oi¹¹ kʰaʔ² tiam³³ boi²⁵
Le2 ziah8(4)-toi2, oi6(7) kah8(4) diam1 bhoi6?
汝 食 睇， 會 佮 甜 袂？
You eat-TEN, can too sweet NEG?
Could you have a taste of this; is it too sweet?
In Mandarin, the equivalent is kàn 看 “see”, but the verb must be reduplicated, which is not the case in Teochew.
Nǐ chīchī-kàn, huì tài tián mā?
你 吃吃 看， 會 太 甜 嗎？
You eat-eat-TEN, can too sweet PRT?
Inchoative
Actions or events that are just starting up. The marker ki3(2)lai5 起來 is cognate to Mandarin qǐlái and is used in the same way.
kau⁵² kie⁵² kʰi⁵²lai¹¹ ua⁵² tsiu¹¹ kĩã³³
Gao2 giê3(2)-ki3(2)lai5(7) ua2 ziu7 gian1.
狗 叫 起來 我 就 驚。
Dog call-INCH I then afraid.
When dogs start to bark, I become afraid.
Continuative
Actions that are continuing, expressed in English with the word “still”, e.g. “He is still making a fuss.”
Teochew uses the aspect marker loh8(4)ke3 落去. The Mandarin equivalent is xiàqu 下去
lɯ⁵² tsai²⁵ tʰak⁵ loʔ²kʰɯ²¹³
Le2 zai3(6) tag8 loh8(4)ke3.
汝 再 讀 落去。
You again read-CONT.
Keep on reading.
(from Li 1959, pg. 255)
Time-related adverbs
Adverbs can be used to specify the timing of an action or event.
Past
teŋ²⁵pai⁵³ • dêng2(6)bai2 • 頂擺 • “in the past”, “formerly”
tsa⁵³tiaŋ³³si⁵⁵ • za2(6)diang1si5 • 早唺時 • “in the past”, “formerly”
sõĩ³³tiaŋ³³si⁵⁵ • soin1diang1si5 • 先唺時 • “in the past”, “formerly”
tsõĩ¹¹si⁵⁵ • zoin5(7)si5 • 前時 • “in the past”, “formerly”
tsʰoŋ³³tsõĩ⁵⁵ • cong1zoin5 • 從前 • “in the past”, “formerly”
tʰaŋ¹¹tsa⁵³ • tang5(7)za2 • 唐早 • “just a while ago”
tʰau¹¹tsuŋ⁵⁵ • tao5(7)zung5 • 頭陣 • “just before”
Present
tsi⁵³tsuŋ³³ • zi2(6)zung1 • 只陣 • “now”
tsi⁵³hue⁵⁵ • zi2(6)huê5 • 只回 • “this time”
Habitual
tak²pai⁵³ • dag8(4)bai2 • 逐擺 • “every time”
si¹¹si⁵⁵ • si5(7)si5 • 時時 • “every time”
tsoi¹¹pai⁵³ • zoi7bai2 • 濟擺 • “repeatedly”
tsoi¹¹tiaŋ³³si⁵⁵ • zoi7diang1si5 • 濟唺時 • “many times”
Future
kʰo²⁵leŋ⁵⁵ • ko2(6)lêng5 • 可能 • possibility
au¹¹lai⁵⁵ • ao6(7)lai5 • 後來 • in the future
e¹¹pai⁵² • ê7bai2 • 下擺 • “next time”
See also “Coordination”.
Time-related auxiliary verbs
Some auxiliary verbs also have meanings related to time.
u³⁵ • u6 • 有 • “have” (affirmative aspect): events in the past
bue¹¹ • bhuê7 • 未 • “not yet”: in the future
ai²¹³ • ai3 • 愛 • “want to”: in the future
oi³⁵ • oi6 • 會 • “able to, intend to”: in the future
References and further reading
- Xu Hui Ling 許惠玲 (2007), Aspect of Chaozhou grammar, Chapter 6
- Lǐ Yǒngmíng 李永明 (1959), 《潮州方言》, Chapter 5 part 4
- Yue, Anne O. (2003), Chinese dialects: Grammar
- Matthews, Stephen & Yip, Virginia (2011), Cantonese: A comprehensive grammar.
- Veniranda, Yohana (2015), Perfective aspect and negation in Pontianak Teochew