Verbal complements
Chinese languages have so-called resultative verb compounds (RVCs). These comprise a main verb (describing an action or event) followed by a second verb or adjective that describes the result after the main verb’s action has occurred. The second verb is known as the resultative verbal complement. Similarly, there are directional verb compounds (DVCs), where the main verb stands for a movement, and is followed by one or two verbs (the directional verbal complement) that describe the direction or aim of the movement.
Contents
In the following Mandarin sentence, the main verb is xué 學 “learn”, without a complement:
Wǒ xué tán gàngqín.
我 學 彈 鋼琴。
I learn play piano.
I am learning to play the piano. or I learn piano-playing.
With a resultative complement huì 會 “able”, we can clarify the result of the action “to learn”: gaining a new ability.
Wǒ xué-huì tán gàngqín (lè).
我 學會 彈 鋼琴 （了）。
I learn-able play piano (already).
I have learned to play the piano.
There is a similar pattern in English with phrasal verbs. Phrasal verbs consist of the main verb plus a particle, which can be separated in some cases.
I ask you to stand up for your beliefs.
We should set our differences aside for now. (set aside)
I will never give up my secret recipe for yam paste.
The syntax of verbal complements in Teochew is similar to Mandarin, however there are some complements that do not use their Mandarin cognates, particularly the complement of extent.
Resultative
Resultative verbal complements (RVCs) describe the result of an action. RVCs follow the pattern:
V1 (main verb) - V2 (adjective or intransitive verb)
/pʰak² ta³³/ • pag8(4)-da1 • 曝焦 • [to-dry]-[dry]
/tsɯ³⁵ sek⁵/ • ze2(6)sêg8 • 煮熟 • [to cook]-[cooked]
***
nõ¹¹ naŋ⁵⁵ sie³³ pʰaʔ² loŋ³⁵ pʰua⁵³ tĩã⁵³
Non6(7)-nang5 siê1pah4 long6(7)pua3(2) dian2.
兩人 相拍 弄破 鼎。
Two-people fight make-break pot.
They broke the pot while fighting.
(Folk song Tin1ou5(7)ou5 • 天烏烏) 1
As the examples above show, resultative complements (V2) are as varied as the main verbs (V1) they go with. There are a number of resultative complements, however, that are more commonly encountered:
diêh8 • 着
Same word used where in Mandarin a number of different resultative complements are used (see Li, 1959).
- zhòng • 中 or zhòngle • 中了
- dào • 到
- lè • 了
- qǐlái • 起來
dêg8 • 得 • ability
Different from Mandarin dé 得, which is used as a complement of extent (see below).
/ho⁵³/ • ho2 • 好 • completion of action
/kĩ²¹³/ • gin3 • 見
/kʰui³³/ • kui1 • 開
/kau²¹³/ • gao3 • 到
Directional
Directional verbal complements (DVCs) describe the direction of an action, and is typically a 3-verb construction. DVCs follow the pattern:
V1 (main verb) - V2 (directional complement) - V3 (lai5 or kheu3)
/pe³⁵ kʰi³⁵ lai¹¹/• bê5(7)ki2(6)lai7 • 扒起來 • [climb]-[rise]-[come] • “climb up”
/kʰioʔ² tɯŋ⁵³ kʰɯ²¹³/ • kioh8(4)deng2-ke3 • 乞轉去 • [take]-[return]-[go] • “take back”
V3 is either lai5 來 “come” or ke3 去 “go”, depending on the direction.
V2 is typically one of the following:
ki2 • 起
tʰau²¹³ kʰi¹¹ lai¹¹ li³³ ŋaŋ¹¹ si⁵³ / pʰak⁵ kʰi¹¹ lai¹¹ li³³ zuaʔ² si⁵³ / tsĩẽ⁵³ sẽ³³ kai¹¹ tʰĩ³³ si⁵⁵ tsiŋ³³ kã³⁵ uiʔ²¹³
Tao3-ki7lai7 li1 ngang5(7)si2, pag8-ki7lai7 li1 ruah8(4)si2, ziên3(2)sên1-gai7 tin1si5 zing1 gan2(6)uin3.
透起來 哩 寒死， 曝起來 哩 熱死， 照生個 天時 真 敢畏。
blow-raise-up then cold-die, shine-raise-up then heat-die, this-day-GEN weather very fearsome.
If [the wind] starts to blow, I’ll freeze to death. If [the sun] keeps shining, I’ll die of heat. This day has been so fearsome.
loh8 • 落
/kak⁵ loʔ² kʰɯ²¹³/ • gag4(8)loh4-ke3 • ～落去 • [throw]-[down]-[there]
deng2 • 轉
guê3 • 過
/pue³³ kue²¹³ kʰɯ²¹³/ buê1guê3-ke3 • 飛過去 • [fly]-[across]-[there]
i³³ mũã³⁵ zik⁵ pue³³ kue⁵³ kʰɯ⁵³ tioŋ³³ kok²
I1 muan2(6)rig8 buê1guê3(2)ke2 Diong1gog4.
伊 明日 飛過去 中國。
He tomorrow fly-over-to China.
He flies to China tomorrow.
rib8 • 入
/kĩã³³ zip² lai¹¹/ gian1rib4lai7 • 走入來 • [walk]-[into]-[here]
lɯ⁵³ meŋ³⁵ kʰa⁵³ muŋ⁵⁵ / ai⁵³ kaʔ² ua⁵³ tã⁵³ ue¹¹ tsiu¹¹ kĩã³³ zip² lai¹¹
Le2 mêng2(6) ka3(2)mung5, ai3(2) gah8(4) ua2 dan3(2)uê7 ziu7 gian1rib8(4)lai7.
汝 免 敲門， 愛 佮 我 呾話 就 走入來。
You don’t-need knock-door, want with me speak then walk-into-here.
You needn’t knock; if you want to speak with me just come in.
cug8 • 出
tsʰoʔ⁵ tsiau⁵³ tsʰuaŋ¹¹ pou³⁵ pue³³ tsʰuk² lai¹¹
Coh4(8)-ziao2 cuang5(7)bou6 buê1cug8(4)lai7.
撮鳥 全部 飛出來。
CL-bird all fly-out-come.
All those birds have flown out.
Potential
If you want to express an action that could (or could not) take place, i.e. a potential action, then the V1-V2 resultative compound can be modified by adding the modal verb oi6 會 or oi6(7)dêg8 會得 or its negative bhoi6 袂 or bhoi6(7)dêg8 袂得 between V1 and V2.
V1 - /oi³⁵/ • oi6 • 會 - V2
V1 - /oi¹¹ tek⁵/ • oi6(7)deg8 • 會得 - V2
lɯ⁵³ tiaŋ³³ si¹¹ tʰak⁵ tsĩã⁵³ tʰak⁵ oi¹¹ zip⁵
Le2 diang1si5(7) tag8 zian3(2) tag8-oi6(7)rib8?
汝 珍時 踢 正 踢會入？
You when kick then kick-can-enter?
When will you be able to kick the ball into the goal? 2
***
V1 - /boi³⁵/ • bhoi6 • 袂 - V2
V1 - /boi¹¹ tek⁵/ • bhoi6(7)dêg8 • 袂得 - V2
i³³ tᵃk⁵ kui³⁵ tsap² pai⁵³ ia¹¹ si¹¹ tʰak⁵ boi¹¹ zip⁵ kai³³
I1 tag4(8) gui2(6)-zab8(4)-bai2 ia7si7 tag4(8)bhoi6(7)rib8 gai1.
伊 踢 幾十擺 亦是 踢袂入 個。
He kick several-ten-times still kick-cannot-enter REL.
He won’t be able to kick the ball into the goal even if he tries a few dozen times.
Extent
Extent of an action or one’s ability. Also known as the complement of degree.
In Mandarin this function is served by dé 得, and has the structure:
SUBJECT V1 - dé - V2
Wǒ chī dé hénbǎo.
我 吃 得 很飽。
In Teochew, the complement of extent can be gah4 佮 or gao3 到.
gah4 • 佮
SUBJECT V1 - gah4 - V2
ua⁵³ tsiaʔ² kaʔ⁵ tsiŋ³³ pa⁵³
Ua2 ziah8(4)-gah8 zing1ba2.
我 食佮 真飽。
I eat-until very-full.
I ate my fill.
gao3 • 到
Also to indicate reaching or arriving at a goal or an objective.
diêh8 • 着
This is a versatile word in Teochew, used very differently from the cognate zhè / zháo in Mandarin. The following is based on discussion by Li (1959).
Apart from functioning as a resultative complement (see above), it can serve a number of other grammatical functions. It’s safe to say that it would be very difficult to speak Teochew for a day without using diêh8!
Main verb - “encounter”, “be afflicted by”
Modal verb - “should” (obligation)
diêh8 can function as a modal verb meaning “should”, expressing obligation. See “Modality”
Adjective - “correct” (confirmation)
ua⁵³ tso¹¹ kai¹¹ ou¹¹ ni⁵⁵ siaŋ¹¹ ho⁵³ / tieʔ² m¹¹ tieʔ⁵
Ua2 zo6(7)-gai7 ou5(7)ni5 siang6(7)-ho2, diêh8(4)-m6(7)-diêh8?
我 做個 芋泥 上好， 着-唔-着？
I make-GEN yam-paste most-good, correct-NOT-correct?
My yam-paste is the best, isn’t it?
***
tsie⁵³ sẽ³³ tsɯ⁵³ tsiu¹¹ tieʔ⁵
Ziê3(2)sên1 ze2 ziu7 diêh8.
照生 煮 就 着。
This-manner cook then correct.
This is the right way to cook.
References and further reading
- Chappell, Hilary (2017), A sketch of Southern Min grammar, Sections 3.4.1.3 and 3.4.1.4
- Koons, Alvin & Koons, Barbara (2016) [1967], Spoken Swatow , Chapter 19
- Yue, Anne O. (2003), Chinese dialects: Grammar, Section 4.12
- Lǐ Yǒngmíng 李永明 (1959),《潮州方言》, Chapter 5 part 11
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Better known in its Hokkien version as Thin-o͘-o͘ 天烏烏. (Chinese Wikipedia) ↩
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You might enjoy the Singaporean short indie film Tak Giu (2005). ↩