Classifiers and gai5 個
Classifiers, also known as “measure words” liang6(7)se5 量詞, are a distinctive feature of Chinese languages.
In English, mass nouns (uncountable nouns) such as “water” or “flour” are usually qualified with a unit of measure or the container used to hold them, e.g. “a liter of water”, “a cup of flour”. Measure words are also used to refer to groups, especially of animals: “a pride of lions”, “a murder of ravens”.
In Chinese languages, however, all nouns, whether countable or uncountable, take a classifier. The most common “generic” classifier is gai5 個, which is cognate to Mandarin gè. However in Teochew, this word also has several other important functions that are not found in Mandarin. These are described below under the section on “gai5 • 個”.
Contents
Classifiers
How to use classifiers
All nouns take a classifier. There are some general patterns, but it can be difficult to guess which is the correct classifier for a given noun. A list of common classifiers is given below.
Classifiers are used when counting. The classifier follows the number but comes before any adjectives.
a³³seŋ⁵⁵ u¹¹ sã³³ kai¹¹ hĩã³³ti³⁵
A1-Sêng5 u6(7) san1-gai5(7) hian1di6.
阿誠 有 三 個 兄弟。
Ah-Seng have three-CL brothers.
Ah Seng has three brothers.
Classifiers are used together with demonstratives (see “Demonstrative pronouns”) when referring to specific objects (“this”, “that”, “each”, “every”).
hɯ³⁵ tiou¹¹ lou¹¹ tsiŋ³³ tɯŋ⁵⁵
He2(6)-diou5(7) lou7 zing1 deng5.
許 條 路 真 長。
That-CL road very long.
That road is very long.
Classifiers are used in questions (see “Questions”) when asking about specific objects (“which”, “how many”).
ap² tõĩ⁵³ u¹¹ kui³⁵ liap² nɯŋ³⁵
Ab8(4)-doin2 u6(7) gui2(6)-liab8(4) neng6?
盒底 有 幾 粒 卵？
Box-inside have how-many-CL eggs?
How many eggs are in the box?
Differences to Mandarin classifiers
The basic usage of classifiers in Teochew, as described above, is the same as in Mandarin. However there are some uses of classifiers that are different from Mandarin.
Definite noun with classifier
A “bare” classifier without a number or prefix can be used before a noun to indicate the definite form (“the cat”, “the hat”).
teŋ³⁵ bo¹¹ boi¹¹ŋia⁵³ / ua⁵³ mo³⁵ ti²¹³
Dêng2(6)-bho7 bhoi6(7)ngia2, ua2 mo2(6) di3.
頂 帽 無雅， 我 孬 戴。
CL-hat NEG-elegant, I NEG wear.
The hat is not elegant, I won’t wear it.
This usage of a “bare” classifier is not found in Hokkien and related dialects from Fujian province, but is present in Teochew and Southern Min dialects in Guangdong province, possibly under the influence of Cantonese.
Genitive form with classifier
Classifiers can be used to form the genitive (possessive) form of a noun or pronoun. In Mandarin, the genitive form uses the marker dè 的 instead.
[NOUN1]-[Classifier] [NOUN2]
ua⁵³ puŋ³⁵ tsɯ³³
Ua2-bung2(6) ze1.
我 本 書。
I-CL book.
My book
In this case, the classifier bung2 本 is the specific classifier used for the noun ze1 書 (“book”). To form the genitive, the generic classifier gai5 個 can also be used, regardless of what classifier the noun usually takes.
[NOUN1]-[kai5 個] [NOUN2]
ua⁵³ kai¹¹ tsɯ³³
Ua2-gai5(7) ze1.
我 個 書。
When coming before the noun (the “attributive” position), both ua2-bung2 and ua2-gai5 can be used. However their meaning is slightly different (see Xu 2007, pg 81).
When coming after the noun (the “predicative” position), only the gai5 form can be used. It also has to be linked to the noun with si6 是 (“is, to be”, the copula).
*tsi⁵³ puŋ³⁵ tsɯ³³ si¹¹ ua⁵³ puŋ⁵³ [incorrect]
*Zi2-bung2(6) ze1 si6(7) ua2-bung2.
*只本 書 是 我 本。
***
[NOUN] - [si6 是] - [NOUN/PRONOUN]-[gai5 個]
tsi⁵³ puŋ³⁵ tsɯ³³ si¹¹ ua⁵³ kai⁵⁵
Zi2-bung2(6) ze1 si6(7) ua2-gai5.
只本 書 是 我 個。
This-CL book is I-GAI.
This book is mine.
Common classifiers
Classifiers can be divided into two main classes: mensural classifiers, which apply to groups, collections, or measures of things that are not counted discretely, and sortal classifiers, which apply to discrete counted objects.
The most common classifier is gai5 個, which is cognate to Mandarin gè. It is the default classifier for people and things, when other classifiers are not applicable. Like the case in Mandarin, gai5 is increasingly replacing the less-common classifiers. gai5 also has other functions (see below).
For plurals, the default classifier is coh4 撮, used in a similar way to Mandarin xiē 些. coh4 can be used for both people and inanimate objects.
A detailed discussion is found in Xu (2007). The following examples are mostly from Xu (2007) and Lim (1886).
Mensural classifiers
These include classifiers that refer to groups of things collectively, e.g. a herd of animals, things that are measured or in containers, e.g. a bowl of water, as well as the general purpose plural classifier.
| IPA | Peng’im | Character | Application and examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| pau³³ | bao1 | 包 | Bundles, bag (container) |
| tshai3 菜 vegetables | |||
| pe⁵³ | bê2 | 把 | Bundles of wood, etc. |
| tsha5 柴 wood | |||
| pue³³ | buê1 | 杯 | Cup (container) |
| tsui2 水 water | |||
| hu³⁵ | hu6 | 副 | Things that come in sets |
| kʰou³³ | kou1 | Bundles of firewood, cash | |
| kʰuŋ⁵⁵ | kung5 | 群 | Groups of people, herds of animals, flocks of birds |
| lek² | lêg4 | 列 | Rows of e.g. people, buildings |
| na⁵⁵ | na5 | 籃 | Basket (container) |
| bi2 米 uncooked rice | |||
| paŋ³³ | bang1 | 班 | Group of people engaged in a common task |
| hak4seng1 學生 students | |||
| saŋ³³ | sang1 | 雙 | Things that come in pairs |
| ue5 鞋 shoes | |||
| tiam⁵³ | diam2 | 點 | Drop of liquid |
| tsʰai⁵⁵ | cai5 | 儎 | Cargo or shipping loads |
| tsʰoʔ² | coh4 | 撮 | General plural, including people |
| nang5 儂 people | |||
| mue’4kiar6 物囝 things | |||
| tui³³ | dui1 | 對 | Things that come in pairs |
| ũã⁵³ | uan2 | 碗 | Bowl (container) |
| peung7 飯 cooked rice |
Sortal classifiers
These refer to discrete objects that can be counted. They classify objects either by their use or by their shape. For example, the classifier liap8 粒 is used for round objects like fruit and eggs.
| IPA | Peng’im | Character | Application and examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| bou⁵³ | bhou2 | Fields | |
| bue⁵³ | bhuê2 | 尾 | Fish (lit. “a tail”) |
| heu5 魚 fish | |||
| hieʔ² | hiêh4 | 頁 | Pages of a book |
| hue³³ | huê1 | ～ | Thin slice of something |
| bha’4 肉 meat | |||
| ki³³ | gi1 | 枝 | Long, slender, and rigid things |
| to1 刀 knife | |||
| tsam1 針 needle | |||
| tek8ko1 竹竿 bamboo pole | |||
| pik4 筆 pen | |||
| kĩã³³ | gian1 | 件 | Business, matter, affair |
| seu7 事 matter, affair | |||
| kõĩ³³ | goin1 | 間 | Houses, rooms |
| phang3keng1 房間 room | |||
| tshu3 厝 house | |||
| ko²¹³ | go3 | 塊 | Pieces or slices of things, including pieces of land |
| kue2 糕 cake, pastry | |||
| kʰa³³ | ka1 | 腳 | Boxes, coffins, rings |
| liap⁵ | liab8 | 粒 | Fruit, eggs, round things |
| pheng7guain2 蘋果 apple | |||
| neung6 卵 egg | |||
| kiu1 球 ball | |||
| lui⁵³ | lui2 | Flowers | |
| nĩã⁵³ | nian2 | 領 | Clothing, sheets, nets |
| sar1 衫 shirt | |||
| mang6 網 net | |||
| khou7 褲 trousers | |||
| pak | bag4 | 幅 | Maps, hanging scrolls |
| puŋ⁵³ | bung2 | 本 | Books |
| tseu1 書 book | |||
| seŋ³³ | sêng1 | 身 | Bodies, things shaped like bodies (e.g. dolls), and things worn on the body |
| teŋ⁵³ | dêng2 | 頂 | Hats and caps |
| tĩẽ³³ | diên1 | 張 | Sheets, paper, machines, vehicles |
| tsua2 紙 paper | |||
| kha1tshia1 腳車 bicycle | |||
| tieu⁵⁵ | diêu5 | 條 | Long, slender, and flexible things |
| suar3 線 string | |||
| lou7 路 road | |||
| pou3 布 towel | |||
| tsiaʔ² | ziah4 | 隻 | Animals, birds, furniture, vehicles, ships |
| koi1 雞 chicken | |||
| kau2 狗 dog | |||
| teu1 豬 pig | |||
| tsheung5 桌 table | |||
| tsung5 船 ship | |||
| tso²¹³ | zo3 | 座 | Buildings, large houses |
| tua7tshu3 大厝 mansion | |||
| tsu²¹³ | zu3 | 主 | Person |
| tsʰaŋ⁵⁵ | cang5 | 欉 | Trees, plants |
| tshiu3 樹 tree | |||
| tsʰak² | cag4 | 節 | A piece of something between two joints, e.g. fingers, bamboo, tree branches, roads |
| lou7 路 road | |||
| tsʰuʔ² | cuh4 | 齣 | Act of a stage play, show |
| hih7 戲 show | |||
| ui¹¹ | ui7 | 位 | Person (polite) |
| ui1seng1 醫生 doctor |
Overlap between Teochew and Mandarin classifiers
Many classifiers in Teochew are used in the same way as their Mandarin cognates.
Some are unique to Teochew and/or Southern Min languages, e.g. nian2 領, coh4 撮.
Teochew has fewer classifiers than Mandarin. Some Teochew classifiers cover nouns that would be served by a number of different Mandarin classifiers. For example, the Teochew classifier ziah8 隻 partly overlaps with the Mandarin zhī 隻, but can also be used with things that would take a number of different classifiers in Mandarin:
tsek² tsiaʔ² kau⁵³ • zêg8(4) ziah8(4) gao2 • 一 隻 狗 vs. yīzhīgǒu 一隻狗 (dog)
tsek² tsiaʔ² tsʰia³³ • zêg8(4) ziah8(4) cia1 • 一 隻 車 vs. yījiàchē 一架車 (motor car)
tsek² tsiaʔ² tsʰɯŋ⁵⁵ • zêg8(4) ziah8(4) ceng5 • 一 隻 桌 vs. yīzuòzhuōzǐ 一座桌子 (table)
tsek² tsiaʔ² tsuŋ⁵⁵ • zêg8(4) ziah8(4) zung5 • 一 隻 船 vs. yītiáochuán 一條船 (boat)
gai5 • 個
The word gai5 個 has many functions in Teochew. Aside from being the most commonly-used classifier, it also functions as a marker for possession (e.g. to form possessive pronouns), attributive adjectives, relative clauses, and more. It is roughly equivalent to a combination of gè 個 and de 的 in Mandarin.
Classifier
gai5 can be used as a classifier just like any other discussed above.
ua⁵³ tʰau¹¹ tsõĩ⁵⁵ u¹¹ sã³³ kai¹¹ naŋ⁵⁵
Ua2 tao5(7)-zoin5 u6(7) san1-gai5(7) nang5.
我 頭前 有 三 個 儂。
I ahead have three-CL people.
There are three people ahead of me.
Genitive marker
Adding gai5 to a noun or pronoun makes the genitive (also known as possessive) form. Other classifiers can also be used, however see the notes above under “Differences from Mandarin classifiers”.
See also the section “Possessive pronouns” under “Personal pronouns”.
ua⁵³ kai¹¹ mueʔ²kĩã³⁵
Ua2-gai5(7) muêh8(4)gian6
我 個 物囝
(1st person pronuon)-GEN thing
My thing
***
tsi³⁵ puŋ³⁵ tsɯ³³ si¹¹ i³³ kai⁵⁵
Zi2(6)-bung2(6) ze1 si6(7) i1-gai5.
只本 書 是 伊 個。
This-CL book is (3rd person pronoun)-GEN.
This is his book.
Attributive adjective linker
An attributive adjective is an adjective that immediately precedes a noun. In Teochew, like Mandarin, when the adjective is a single syllable (written as a single character), there is often no need for a linker.
i³³ si¹¹ ho³⁵naŋ⁵⁵
I1 si6(7) ho2(6)nang5
Tā shì hǎorén
他 是 好人
He is good-person
However, when the adjective is more than a single syllable, it needs a linker. In Mandarin, this is dè 的, whereas in Teochew this is gai5 個.
ADJ - gai5 - NOUN
tsʰẽ³³sek² kai¹¹ sã³³
Cên1sêg8(4)-gai5(7) san1
青色 個 衫
Green-GAI clothes
Relative clause linker
Relative clauses in English typically follow the noun phrase that they are dependent on.
The man who had been waiting outside has just gone.
In Teochew, like in Mandarin, relative clauses usually precede the noun, and is linked to the noun with gai5 個 (Mandarin would use dè 的). Because of this similarity to attributive adjectives (see above), both these functional roles are sometimes grouped together under the name “descriptive linker”.
RELATIVE CLAUSE - gai5 - NOUN …
To7 gua7khau2 lo6tang2 kai7 nang5 tu1tu1 teung2 kheu3. to¹¹ gua¹¹kʰau⁵³ lo⁵⁵taŋ⁵³ kai¹¹ naŋ⁵⁵ tu³³tu³³ tɯŋ⁵³ kʰɯ²¹³
Do6(7) ghua7kao2 lo5dang2 gai5(7) nang5 du1du1 deng2 ke3.
在 外口 囉等 個 儂 堵堵 轉 去。
At outside PROG-wait REL person INCP return go.
The man who had been waiting outside has just gone.
Nominalizing suffix
An adjective or adjective phrase can behave like a noun, by adding kai5 as a suffix.
lɯ⁵³ u¹¹ ho³⁵tsiaʔ² kai¹¹ bo⁵⁵
Le2 u6(7) ho2(6)ziah8 gai5(7) bho5?
汝 有 好食 個 無？
You have can-eat-GAI don’t-have?
Do you have something to eat?
References and further reading
- Xu Hui Ling 許惠玲 (2007), Aspect of Chaozhou grammar, Chapter 5
- Lim Hiong Seng 林雄成 (1886), Handbook of the Swatow vernacular, pp. 157-158